Al-Hujurat

See ayat 5 for tafseer.

See ayat 5 for tafseer.

See ayat 5 for tafseer.

See ayat 5 for tafseer.

Exegetes have reported multiple distinct occasions of revelation for the first verse, and separate occasions for the subsequent verses. Among the occasions of revelation mentioned for the first verse is the following: when the Prophet صلى الله علیہ وآلہ وسلم set out toward Khaybar, he intended to appoint someone in his place in Madīnah. However, ‘Umar suggested appointing another individual. At this point, the verse was revealed instructing that believers should not put themselves ahead of Allah and His Messenger. (Reference: Tafsīr Qurtubī, vol. 9, p. 6121). Other exegetes have reported that a group of Muslims would sometimes say that it would be preferable if such-and-such a matter were revealed concerning them. The verse was then revealed, forbidding them from preceding Allah and His Messenger in such matters. (Reference: Tafsīr Qurtubī, vol. 9, p. 6121). Some have stated that the verse refers to certain individuals who performed acts of worship before their proper time; thus, the verse was revealed to prevent such behavior. (Reference: Tafsīr Qurtubī, vol. 9, p. 6121). As for the second verse, it is reported that a group from the tribe of Banū Tamīm, along with their leaders, came to Madīnah. When they entered the Prophet’s Mosque, they called out loudly from behind the chambers where the Prophet صلى الله علیہ وآلہ وسلم resided, saying: “يا محمد اخرج إلينا” (“O Muḥammad, come out to us!”). Their shouting and discourteous expressions caused discomfort to the Prophet. When he came out to them, they said that they had come to display their pride, and they requested permission for their orator and poet to proclaim the virtues of Banū Tamīm. The Prophet granted permission. Their orator spoke first, enumerating what he claimed to be the virtues of the tribe. The Prophet then instructed Thābit ibn Qays—who served as a principal spokesman—to respond. He delivered an eloquent speech that neutralized their claims. After this, their poet recited verses praising their tribe, to which the well-known Muslim poet Ḥassān ibn Thābit provided a decisive reply. At that point, one of their leaders, al-Aqra‘, remarked that the Prophet’s spokesman was more eloquent than theirs and that his poet surpassed theirs. This impressed them greatly, and eventually they acknowledged the Prophethood of the Messenger صلى الله علیہ وآلہ وسلم. The verses under discussion were revealed in connection with their shouting from behind the chambers of the Prophet. Another occasion of revelation has also been reported, which relates both to the first and subsequent verses. It is said that in the ninth year after Hijrah—the year known as “‘Ām al-Wufūd,” when numerous delegations came to accept Islam or conclude treaties—the representatives of Banū Tamīm came before the Prophet. Abū Bakr suggested that al-Qa‘qā‘, one of their notables, be appointed as their leader, while ‘Umar suggested another individual, al-Aqra‘ ibn Ḥābis. At this point, Abū Bakr and ‘Umar differed, and their discussion escalated to raised voices in the presence of the Prophet. Subsequently, the verses were revealed, instructing the believers not to precede the Prophet in matters and not to raise their voices in his presence. (Reference: Tafsīr Qurtubī, vol. 9, p. 6121; Tafsīr Fī Ẓilāl al-Qur’ān, vol. 7, p. 524; Sīrah Ibn Hishām, vol. 4, p. 206; also reported in Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī under the tafsīr of Sūrah al-Ḥujurāt).

As has already been indicated, this sūrah contains an important series of ethical teachings and disciplinary directives, to such an extent that it may rightly be described as a “Sūrah of ethics.” In the verses under discussion—presented at the very beginning of the sūrah—reference has been made to two of these fundamental principles: First: not to precede Allah and His Messenger in any matter. Second: not to raise one’s voice or engage in loud and disorderly speech in the presence of the Prophet. It is thus stated: O you who believe! Do not put yourselves ahead of Allah and His Messenger, and observe taqwā of Allah; indeed, Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing (يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا لَا تُقَدِّمُوا بَيْنَ يَدَيِ اللهِ وَرَسُولِهِ وَاتَّقُوا اللهَ إِنَّ اللهَ سَمِيعٌ عَلِيمٌ). The prohibition of precedence here signifies not hastening ahead of Allah and His Messenger in actions, nor acting impulsively in opposition to their command. Although some exegetes have sought to restrict the meaning to specific instances—such as performing acts of worship before their prescribed time, or speaking before the Prophet speaks—it is clear that the verse carries a comprehensive and wide-ranging sense, encompassing all forms of precedence in any matter. The requirement of discipline before a leader—particularly a great divine leader—demands that one neither assume initiative independently nor act without prior authorization. This does not preclude offering suggestions or counsel; rather, it prohibits advancing ahead by executing decisions without approval, resolving matters independently, or acting in haste before divine guidance has been received. It likewise includes refraining from excessive questioning or discourse beyond necessity, entrusting matters to the leader to address at the appropriate time—particularly when that leader is ma‘ṣūm and not subject to forgetfulness or oversight. Similarly, when another person is addressing the leader, one should not intervene hastily to respond. All such conduct falls within the purview of this verse. In the following verse, the second directive is stated: O you who believe! Do not raise your voices above the voice of the Prophet, nor speak loudly to him as you speak to one another, lest your deeds become nullified while you are unaware (يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا لَا تَرْفَعُوا أَصْوَاتَكُمْ فَوْقَ صَوْتِ النَّبِيِّ وَلَا تَجْهَرُوا لَهُ بِالْقَوْلِ كَجَهْرِ بَعْضِكُمْ لِبَعْضٍ أَن تَحْبَطَ أَعْمَالُكُمْ وَأَنتُمْ لَا تَشْعُرُونَ). The first clause prohibits raising one’s voice above that of the Prophet, as this constitutes a form of disrespect. The station of the Prophet is inherently elevated; such conduct would be considered improper even before parents or teachers. The second clause—“do not speak loudly to him”—may either reinforce the first or indicate an additional directive, such as avoiding addressing him in informal or familiar terms (e.g., “yā Muḥammad”) and instead using reverential forms such as “yā Rasūl Allāh.” Some exegetes distinguish between the two clauses by stating that the first applies when speaking directly with the Prophet, and the second refers to speaking in his presence when he is silent. These interpretations may be reconciled, and both align with the occasion of revelation. It is evident that if such conduct is undertaken intentionally as an act of disrespect toward the مقامِ نبوت, it constitutes disbelief; otherwise, it remains a sin and a form of offense. In either case, the warning of the nullification (ḥabṭ) of deeds is significant: disbelief leads to the complete annulment of good deeds, and even acts of disrespect short of disbelief may diminish or invalidate the reward of certain actions. A narration reports that when this verse was revealed, Thābit ibn Qays—known for his loud voice—feared that his deeds had been nullified and that he would be among the أهل النار. When this reached the Prophet صلى الله علیہ وآلہ وسلم, he reassured him that this was not the case, and that he would be among the people of Paradise, since his loudness occurred in contexts such as public address or necessary proclamation. Similar instances are reported, such as during the battle of Ḥunayn. The next verse further emphasizes the reward of proper conduct: Indeed, those who lower their voices in the presence of the Messenger of Allah—those are the ones whose hearts Allah has tested for taqwā; for them is forgiveness and a great reward (إِنَّ الَّذِينَ يَغُضُّونَ أَصْوَاتَهُمْ عِندَ رَسُولِ اللهِ أُوْلَئِكَ الَّذِينَ امْتَحَنَ اللهُ قُلُوبَهُمْ لِلتَّقْوَى لَهُم مَّغْفِرَةٌ وَأَجْرٌ عَظِيمٌ). Here, “امتحن” signifies a process of purification and refinement, indicating that such individuals have hearts prepared and tested to receive taqwā. The subsequent verse criticizes those lacking such discipline: Indeed, those who call out to you from behind the chambers—most of them do not understand (إِنَّ الَّذِينَ يُنَادُونَكَ مِن وَرَاءِ الْحُجُرَاتِ أَكْثَرُهُمْ لَا يَعْقِلُونَ). This refers to those who, like the Bedouins of Banū Tamīm, called out in loud and discourteous tones from outside the Prophet’s quarters. Such behavior reflects a deficiency of عقل and refinement. Indeed, the more developed a person’s intellect, the more refined their manners; conversely, lack of etiquette is indicative of immaturity of understanding. Finally, the last verse offers guidance and reassurance: If they had exercised patience until you came out to them, it would have been better for them; and Allah is Forgiving, Merciful (وَلَوْ أَنَّهُمْ صَبَرُوا حَتَّى تَخْرُجَ إِلَيْهِمْ لَكَانَ خَيْرًا لَهُمْ وَاللَّهُ غَفُورٌ رَّحِيمٌ). Although haste may sometimes bring apparent immediacy in achieving aims, in such contexts patience yields greater spiritual benefit, forgiveness, and reward. And since some individuals had acted improperly prior to the revelation of these directives, the concluding statement offers them hope: through repentance, they too may be encompassed by divine forgiveness and mercy.

In Islam, great importance has been attached to observing respect and proper etiquette in interactions with every individual and group. As examples, a few traditions are mentioned: ‘Alī عليه السلام states: “Al-adab ḥulalun mujaddidah”: “Observance of etiquette is like wearing ever-renewing, elegant garments.” (Reference: Nahj al-Balāghah, ḥikmah 5). In another place he says: “Al-adab yughni ‘an al-ḥasab”: “Etiquette makes a person independent of pride in lineage and ancestry.” In another ḥadīth narrated from Imām Ṣādiq عليه السلام, he states: “Khamsun man lam takun fīhi lam yakun fīhi kathīr mustamta‘. Qīla: wa mā hunna yā ibn Rasūl Allāh? Qāla: ad-dīn, wal-‘aql, wal-ḥayā’, wa ḥusn al-khuluq, wa ḥusn al-adab.” “Five qualities are such that if a person does not possess them, then he lacks many admirable virtues.” It was asked: O son of the Messenger of Allah, what are they? He said: religion, intellect, modesty, good character, and good etiquette. (Reference: Bihār al-Anwār, vol. 75, p. 68). In another ḥadīth from the same Imām, it is stated: “Lā yaṭma‘anna dhū al-kibr fī al-thanā’ al-ḥasan, wa lā al-khabb fī kathrat al-ṣadīq, wa lā sayyi’ al-adab fī al-sharaf.” “The arrogant should never expect good praise from people, nor should the deceitful expect to have many friends, nor should the ill-mannered expect honor and dignity.” (Reference: Bihār al-Anwār, vol. 75, p. 67). Accordingly, when we examine the lives of the great leaders of Islam, we observe that they adhered to the most subtle aspects of etiquette even in their dealings with those younger than themselves. In principle, religion itself is a collection of etiquettes: etiquette toward God, etiquette before the Prophet, etiquette before the Imāms, etiquette before teachers, parents, and scholars. It is even evident from reflection upon Qur’ānic verses that Allah, despite His supreme majesty, observes complete decorum when addressing His servants. In such a context, the responsibility of people in relation to God and His Messenger becomes clear and manifest. In a narration it is reported that when the opening verses of Sūrah al-Mu’minūn were revealed—which included among their teachings the matter of humility (khushū‘) in prayer—the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم, who previously used to raise his gaze toward the sky during prayer, thereafter kept his gaze lowered toward the ground. (Reference: Tafsīr Majma‘ al-Bayān; Tafsīr Fakhr Rāzī, under Sūrah al-Mu’minūn, verse 2). The matter of etiquette before the Prophet is so significant that the Qur’ān explicitly states in the preceding verses that raising one’s voice above that of the Prophet and creating noise in his presence can result in the nullification of deeds and loss of reward. It is clear that this principle is not limited merely to raising one’s voice; rather, other acts that amount to disrespect parallel to such behavior are also included. In juristic terminology, this involves “al-qā’ al-khuṣūṣiyyah” and “tanqīḥ al-manāṭ,” by which analogous cases are incorporated under the same ruling. Similarly, in Sūrah al-Nūr (63), it is stated: “لَا تَجْعَلُوا دُعَاءَ الرَّسُولِ بَيْنَكُمْ كَدُعَاءِ بَعْضِكُم بَعْضًا” A group of exegetes interpret this as meaning: when you call the Prophet, you should do so with the reverence and respect befitting his مقام, not as you call one another. It is noteworthy that the Qur’ān describes adherence to etiquette in the presence of the Prophet as a sign of purity of heart and readiness for taqwā, and as a cause of forgiveness and great reward, whereas those lacking such etiquette are portrayed as devoid of understanding, like irrational beings. Some exegetes have further extended the implication and held that this principle applies, at lower درجات, to scholars, intellectuals, and moral leaders as well, and that Muslims are obliged to observe proper etiquette before them too. With regard to the Imāms of Ahl al-Bayt عليهم السلام, this matter is even more emphasized. For example, it is narrated that when a person in a state of janābah came before one of them, the Imām said: “Amā ta‘lamu annahu lā yanbaghī lil-junub an yadkhula buyūt al-anbiyā’?” “Do you not know that it is not appropriate for one in a state of janābah to enter the houses of the prophets?” (Reference: Bihār al-Anwār, vol. 27, p. 255). In another narration it is stated: “Inna buyūt al-anbiyā’ wa awlād al-anbiyā’ lā yadkhuluhā al-junub.” “The houses of the prophets and the houses of their descendants are not to be entered by one in a state of janābah.” In summary, the observance of etiquette before both superiors and others constitutes an important dimension of Islamic teachings. A full discussion would extend beyond the scope of these verses. Therefore, we conclude with a statement of Imām Zayn al-‘Ābidīn ‘Alī ibn al-Ḥusayn عليه السلام from Risālat al-Ḥuqūq concerning etiquette toward a teacher: “The right of the one who teaches you and nurtures you is that you should honor him, respect his gathering, listen attentively to his words, and sit before him with proper decorum. You should not raise your voice above his, nor hasten to answer a question directed to him. Do not speak to others in his presence, nor backbite anyone before him. If anyone speaks ill of him behind his back, defend him, conceal his faults, and make his virtues known. Do not sit with his enemies, nor treat his friends as enemies. When you act in this way, the angels of Allah will bear witness that you sought knowledge from him for the sake of Allah and not for the sake of people.” (Reference: Maḥajjat al-Bayḍā’, vol. 3, p. 450, Bāb Ādāb al-Ṣuḥbah wa al-Mu‘āsharah).

A group of scholars and exegetes have stated that the verses under discussion—just as they prohibit raising one’s voice in the presence of the Prophet صلى الله علیہ وآلہ وسلم during his lifetime—also extend in effect to the period after his passing (Reference: Rūḥ al-Ma‘ānī, vol. 26, p. 125). If what is intended is the literal scope of the wording of the verse, then the apparent meaning is confined to the lifetime of the Messenger of Allah, since the verse states not to raise one’s voice above his voice, which presupposes his physical presence and speech. However, if the intention is the underlying rationale and philosophy of the ruling—which is evident in such contexts, and from which customary reasoning may abstract the effective cause—then such an extension is not far-fetched. For it is clear that the objective is the observance of reverence and respect toward the sacred person of the Prophet. Therefore, if raising one’s voice near his grave constitutes a form of disrespect and violation, then it is undoubtedly impermissible, except in cases such as the call to prayer, recitation of the Qur’ān, sermons, or similar acts, which are not prohibited either during his lifetime or after his passing. In Uṣūl Kāfī, a narration from Imām Bāqir عليه السلام is reported concerning the incident at the time of the passing of Imām Ḥasan al-Mujtabā عليه السلام. When ‘Ā’ishah opposed his burial near the Prophet and a commotion arose, Imām Ḥusayn عليه السلام cited the verse: “يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا لَا تَرْفَعُوا أَصْوَاتَكُمْ فَوْقَ صَوْتِ النَّبِيِّ...” and quoted from the Messenger of Allah: “إن اللَّه حرم من المؤمنين أمواتا ما حرم منهم أحياء” “Indeed, Allah has forbidden from the believers in death that which He forbade from them in life.” (Reference: Uṣūl Kāfī, as cited in Nūr al-Thaqalayn, vol. 5, p. 80). This narration serves as another indication of the broader applicability of the verse’s meaning.

The issue of management and organization can never function properly without the preservation of discipline. If those who are under a manager or leader act independently and arbitrarily, the entire structure of affairs will collapse—no matter how capable and qualified the leader may be. Many defeats and failures that have afflicted various groups, communities, and armies have arisen precisely from this cause. Muslims too have repeatedly experienced the bitter consequences of deviating from this principle during the lifetime of the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم and afterward. One of the clearest examples is the defeat at Uḥud, which occurred due to the lack of discipline of a small group of soldiers. The Qur’ān has presented this exceedingly important principle in the preceding verses in a concise yet comprehensive and compelling manner, stating: يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا لَا تُقَدِّمُوا بَيْنَ يَدَيِ اللهِ وَرَسُولِهِ As has already been explained, the scope of this expression is so broad that it includes every form of precedence, delay, or independent speech and conduct that departs from the directives of leadership. In this light, numerous instances can be found in the life of the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم where some individuals either preceded his commands or lagged behind them and deviated from obedience, thereby becoming subject to severe reproach and admonition. Among these are the following: 1. When the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم set out for the conquest of Makkah during the blessed month of Ramaḍān in the eighth year after Hijrah, a large group accompanied him. Some were mounted, while others were on foot. When they reached the station of Karā‘ al-Ghamīm, water was brought upon his command, and the Prophet broke his fast. His companions also broke their fast, but surprisingly a group did not follow and continued fasting. The Prophet referred to them as “ʿuṣāt” (i.e., a group of disobedient ones). (Reference: Wasā’il, vol. 7, p. 125, Abwāb man yaṣḥu minhu al-ṣawm, with slight abridgment). 2. Another example occurred during the Farewell Pilgrimage (Ḥajjat al-Wadāʿ) in the tenth year after Hijrah. The Prophet commanded that whoever had not brought a sacrificial animal should perform ‘Umrah first and then exit iḥrām before performing the rites of Ḥajj, while those who had brought sacrificial animals should remain in iḥrām. He further stated that if he himself had not brought sacrificial animals, he would have exited iḥrām as well. However, some individuals refused to comply, saying: how can it be that the Prophet remains in iḥrām while we exit it? The Prophet was greatly displeased with this act of non-compliance and issued a strong reprimand. (Reference: Bihār al-Anwār, vol. 21, p. 386, with abridgment). 3. The well-known incident of the army of Usāmah occurred near the end of the Prophet’s life. The Prophet commanded the Muslims to prepare under the leadership of Usāmah ibn Zayd for an expedition against the Romans, and instructed both the Muhājirīn and the Anṣār to join this army. It appears that he intended to prevent internal conflicts that might arise after his passing. He even pronounced a curse upon those who refrained from joining the army. Nevertheless, a group refused to depart, offering the excuse that they could not leave the Prophet alone in such circumstances. (This event is recorded in many historical works and is among the significant occurrences of early Islamic history). 4. Another well-known and deeply significant event is the incident of the pen and paper during the final moments of the Prophet’s life. It is appropriate to cite the wording as recorded in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim: “Lammā ḥaḍara Rasūl Allāh wa fī al-bayt rijāl fīhim ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, qāla al-nabī: halumma aktub lakum kitāban lā taḍillūna baʿdahu. Fa-qāla ʿUmar: inna Rasūl Allāh qad ghalaba ʿalayhi al-wajaʿ… wa ʿindakum al-Qur’ān, ḥasbunā kitāb Allāh… Fa’khtalafa ahl al-bayt wa ikhtaṣamū… fa-qāla Rasūl Allāh: qūmū!” “When the time of the Prophet’s passing approached, a group was present in the house, including ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb. The Prophet said: bring me writing materials so that I may write something for you after which you will never go astray. ʿUmar said: the illness has overcome the Messenger of Allah… you have the Qur’ān; the Book of Allah is sufficient for us. A disagreement arose among those present… some said to bring the materials, while others supported ʿUmar’s statement. When the dispute intensified, the Prophet said: leave me and go away.” (Reference: Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, vol. 3, Kitāb al-Waṣiyyah, ḥadīth 22; also reported in Ṣaḥīḥ Bukhārī, vol. 6). This event is among the most significant incidents in Islamic history and requires deeper analysis; however, within the present context, it clearly constitutes one of the most evident cases of opposition to the Prophet’s command and a clear instance of contravening the verse: يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا لَا تُقَدِّمُوا بَيْنَ يَدَيِ اللهِ وَرَسُولِهِ The essential point is that maintaining this divine system of discipline requires firm faith in the leader, acceptance of his leadership in all circumstances of life, and complete submission in obedience to him. Provide your feedback on BizChat

See ayat 8 for tafseer.

See ayat 8 for tafseer.

In the interpretation of the first verse under discussion, two occasions of revelation (asbāb al-nuzūl) have been mentioned. Some exegetes—such as al-Ṭabarsī in Majma‘ al-Bayān—have reported both, while others—such as al-Qurṭubī, Nūr al-Thaqalayn, and Fī Ẓilāl al-Qur’ān—have sufficed with only one. The first occasion of revelation, which has been cited by the majority of exegetes, is that the verse يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا إِن جَاءَكُمْ فَاسِقٌ was revealed concerning Walīd ibn ‘Uqbah, whom the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم had sent to collect the zakāt from the tribe of Banī al-Muṣṭaliq. When the members of the tribe learned that the Messenger’s representative was approaching, they became pleased and came out to receive him. However, because there had been intense enmity between them and Walīd during the period of jāhiliyyah, he assumed—without verification—that they intended to kill him. Thus, without investigating the matter, he returned to the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم and reported that they had refused to pay the zakāt. (It is well known that refusal to pay zakāt was considered a form of rebellion against the Islamic authority; therefore, he implied that they had apostasized.) The Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم became angered and intended to fight against them. At that point, the aforementioned verse was revealed, instructing the believers that when a transgressor (fāsiq) brings news, they must verify it. (Reference: Tafsīr Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 9, p. 132). Some have further added that after Walīd’s report of the alleged apostasy of Banī al-Muṣṭaliq, the Prophet sent Khālid ibn al-Walīd to them, instructing him not to act hastily. Khālid approached the tribe at night and sent scouts to investigate. They returned with the report that the tribe remained firmly committed to Islam and that they had heard the voices of adhān and ṣalāh. The next morning, Khālid himself went among them and confirmed the truth of this report, then returned to the Prophet and informed him. Thereupon the verse was revealed, and the Prophet said: “التأنّي من الله، والعجلة من الشيطان” “Deliberation and careful verification are from Allah, and haste comes from Satan.” (Reference: Tafsīr al-Qurṭubī, vol. 9, p. 6131). The second occasion of revelation, reported only by some exegetes, is that this verse was revealed concerning Māriyah, the wife of the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم (the mother of Ibrāhīm). It is said that some individuals informed the Prophet that she had a cousin who would occasionally visit her, and insinuated that there was an illicit relationship between them. The Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم summoned ‘Alī عليه السلام and said: “O my brother, take this sword; if you find him with Māriyah, then strike him down.” Amīr al-Mu’minīn عليه السلام responded: “O Messenger of Allah, am I to act like a heated stamp (sikka)—executing your command without inquiry—or should I investigate, for the one present sees what the absent does not see?” The Prophet replied: “Act on the basis that the present sees what the absent does not see.” ‘Alī عليه السلام narrates: I girded the sword and went toward him. I saw him with Māriyah. When I drew my sword, he fled and climbed a palm tree. As he descended, his garment was lifted, and it became clear that he had no male organ at all. I returned to the Prophet and related what had occurred. The Prophet said: “Praise be to Allah Who has removed evil, impurity, and accusation from us.” (Reference: Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 9, p. 133; this occasion is also reported in more detail in Nūr al-Thaqalayn, vol. 5, p. 81).

In the preceding verses, discussion centered upon the responsibilities and obligations of the Muslims in relation to their leader, the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم. Two important directives were set forth therein: first, not to precede Allah and His Messenger in any matter; and second, to observe propriety and respect when speaking in the presence of the Prophet and when addressing him. The verses under discussion continue to elaborate upon the duties and responsibilities of the community before this great leader, stating that when bringing information to him, it must be based upon verification. If a fāsiq brings news, it should not be accepted without investigation, nor should pressure be placed upon the Prophet to act upon it. The verse begins: “يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا إِن جَاءَكُمْ فَاسِقٌ بِنَبَإٍ فَتَبَيَّنُوا” “O you who believe! If a transgressor comes to you with news, then verify it.” It then explains the reason, stating: “أَن تُصِيبُوا قَوْمًا بِجَهَالَةٍ فَتُصْبِحُوا عَلَى مَا فَعَلْتُمْ نَادِمِينَ” “Lest you harm a people in ignorance and then become regretful for what you have done.” As in the case where, if the Prophet had acted upon the report of Walīd ibn ‘Uqbah and waged war against Banī al-Muṣṭaliq as an apostate group, it would have led to a grievous calamity. From the tone of the following verse, it is understood that a group was insisting upon such action. The Qur’ān declares that this would have been ignorance and folly, ending in regret. A group of scholars of uṣūl al-fiqh has used this verse as evidence for the حجّية خبر الواحد, arguing that the necessity of verifying the report of a fāsiq implies that the report of a just (‘ādil) person may be accepted without investigation. However, this reasoning has been challenged, particularly on two major grounds. The first objection is that this argument depends upon the validity of the implication of وصف (qualifying attribute), whereas it is commonly held that such implication is not authoritative. The second objection is that the reason mentioned in the verse is broad and includes both the report of a just person and that of a transgressor, since acting upon a probable report may still result in regret. Both objections, however, are answerable. The implication of وصف, when used to specify restrictions in a given context, is considered authoritative; in this verse, mentioning the condition of fāsiq serves no apparent purpose other than distinguishing it from the report of a just person. As for the stated rationale, it does not extend to all forms of probabilistic evidence, but rather to cases of ignorant and imprudent action, as indicated by the emphasis on “جهالة.” Most forms of rational reliance in daily life—such as reliance upon textual appearances, testimony of witnesses, expert opinion, or possession—are probabilistic, yet not considered ignorant or foolish. Thus, this verse is among the clear evidences supporting reliance upon a trustworthy report, even in practical matters. Indeed, the very continuity of human civilization depends upon reliance upon trustworthy transmission; without it, knowledge, history, and social organization would collapse. Conversely, reliance upon unreliable reports is highly dangerous, leading to harm, injustice, and ultimately regret. Fabrication of false information and reliance upon unreliable sources have historically been tools of tyrannical and colonial systems to mislead people and exploit them. If Muslims adhere to this divine principle and refrain from accepting unverified reports, they will avoid many such calamities. The crucial criterion is confidence in the report itself, whether obtained through trust in the narrator or through external evidence. Thus, even a report from a fāsiq may be accepted if supported by reliable indicators, while a report from a just person may be rejected if external factors undermine confidence in it. The verse continues: “وَاعْلَمُوا أَنَّ فِيكُمْ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ لَوْ يُطِيعُكُمْ فِي كَثِيرٍ مِنَ الْأَمْرِ لَعَنِتُّمْ” “And know that among you is the Messenger of Allah; if he were to obey you in many matters, you would fall into hardship.” This indicates that some individuals were pressing the Prophet to act upon the false report regarding Banī al-Muṣṭaliq. The Qur’ān reminds them that the Prophet is a divinely guided leader, not one who follows the inclinations of others. Imposing one’s opinions upon him would only lead to harm. The verse then points to another divine blessing: “وَلَكِنَّ اللَّهَ حَبَّبَ إِلَيْكُمُ الْإِيمَانَ وَزَيَّنَهُ فِي قُلُوبِكُمْ” “But Allah has made faith beloved to you and adorned it in your hearts,” and: “وَكَرَّهَ إِلَيْكُمُ الْكُفْرَ وَالْفُسُوقَ وَالْعِصْيَانَ” “and has made disbelief, transgression, and disobedience hateful to you.” This reflects the principle of divine لطف, particularly in its formative sense. Allah creates both external guidance—through Prophets and revelation—and internal inclination toward truth, instilling love for faith and aversion to falsehood within human nature. Thus, every person is naturally inclined toward faith and purity, though this innate disposition may later be corrupted by environment and habit. This verse does not conflict with the principle of consultation (shūrā), since consultation involves expressing opinions, while the final decision rests with the Prophet. The term “فسوق” here encompasses all forms of sin and deviation, while “عصيان” functions as an emphasis. The verse concludes: “أُولَٰئِكَ هُمُ الرَّاشِدُونَ” “Such are the rightly guided.” Those who preserve this divine disposition—love of faith and aversion to sin—will attain guidance. Notably, the shift from addressing believers directly to referring to them in the third person suggests that this principle is universal, not confined to the Companions alone. The final verse states: “فَضْلًا مِّنَ اللَّهِ وَنِعْمَةً وَاللَّهُ عَلِيمٌ حَكِيمٌ” “This is a فضل from Allah and a نعمة, and Allah is All-Knowing, Wise.” Both “فضل” and “نعمة” refer to divine bestowal: “فضل” from the perspective of God’s generosity, and “نعمة” from the perspective of human need. Together, they represent two aspects of the same reality. Through His knowledge of human needs and His wisdom in guiding and nurturing creation, Allah grants these profound spiritual blessings—love of faith and aversion to disbelief and sin—so that human beings may attain guidance and ultimate fulfillment.

The preceding verse presents, from the Islamic perspective, a clear conceptual framework regarding the issues of “jabr wa ikhtiyār” (determinism and free will) and “hidāyah wa iḍlāl” (guidance and misguidance). It makes evident that the function of Allah is to provide the means and conditions for growth and guidance. On the one hand, He places the Messenger of Allah among the people and reveals the Qur’ān as a comprehensive program of guidance and light. On the other hand, He instills within the inner being of human beings—at the level of disposition—a love for faith and an aversion and repugnance toward disbelief and disobedience, thereby preparing the ground within their hearts and souls. However, in the final analysis, He entrusts the freedom of choice and volition to human beings themselves, while at the same time making them accountable through the laws of the Sharī‘ah. According to the preceding verses, the love of faith and the aversion to disbelief exist, without exception, in the hearts of all human beings. If such a disposition is absent in certain individuals, it is due to erroneous forms of upbringing or the consequences of their own actions. Allah has not created in the heart of any person a love for disobedience or a hatred toward faith.

The preceding verse once again emphasizes that the existence of a divine leader is necessary and indispensable for the growth, development, and guidance of a community—on the condition that such a leader is to be obeyed (maṭā‘), and not himself obedient to the followers. His commands must be upheld with full acceptance, rather than the followers exerting pressure upon him to serve their limited aims and thoughts. This principle is not restricted solely to divine leadership. Rather, in every domain of management (idārah) and command (farmāndahī), the same rule must prevail. At the same time, this directive does not imply autocracy on the part of leaders, nor does it negate the principle of consultation (shūrā), as has already been indicated above.

These verses, in their underlying sense, point to the reality that faith (īmān) is a form of intense divine and spiritual attachment. Although its foundations are established upon rational arguments, it ultimately manifests as a deep inner inclination and emotional bond. Thus, it is narrated from Imām Ṣādiq عليه السلام that people asked the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم whether love and hatred are part of faith. He replied: “وَهَل الإيمان إلّا الحبّ وَالبغض؟! ثُمّ تَلاهذِهِ الآيَة: حَبَّبَ إِلَيْكُمُ الْإِيمانَ وَزَيَّنَهُ فِي قُلُوبِكُمْ وَكَرَّهَ إِلَيْكُمُ الْكُفْرَ وَالْفُسُوقَ وَالْعِصْيانَ أُولئِكَ هُمُ الرَّاشِدُونَ” “Is faith anything other than love and hatred?” Then he recited the verse under discussion, which states: Allah has made faith beloved to you and adorned it in your hearts, and has made disbelief, transgression, and disobedience hateful to you; such are the rightly guided. (Reference: Uṣūl Kāfī, vol. 2, Bāb al-Ḥubb fī Allāh wa al-Bughḍ fī Allāh, ḥadīth 5). In another narration from Imām Muḥammad al-Bāqir عليه السلام, it is stated: “وَھل الدّین إلّا الحبّ؟!” “Is religion anything other than love?” He then supported this statement with Qur’ānic verses, including the verse under discussion, and further added: “الدّین ھو الحبّ والحبّ ھو الدین” “Religion is love, and love is religion.” (Reference: Tafsīr Nūr al-Thaqalayn, vol. 5, pp. 83–84). However, there is no doubt—as already indicated—that this love must be nourished and guided by rational argumentation and sound logical principles.

See ayat 10 for tafseer.

In the occasions of revelation of these verses, it is stated that a dispute arose between two well-known tribes of Madīnah—the tribes of Aws and Khazraj. As a result of this conflict, they turned against one another and even began striking each other with sticks and sandals. At this point, the above verses were revealed, guiding the Muslims on how to deal with such incidents. (Reference: Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 9, p. 132). Some have also reported that the conflict began between two individuals from among the Anṣār. One of them said to the other that he would take his right from him by force, because his tribe was greater in number. The other responded that they should take the matter to the Messenger of Allah for judgment. The first refused this proposal, and the disagreement intensified, leading groups from both tribes to attack each other with hands, sandals, and even swords. Thereupon, the above verses were revealed, clarifying the responsibility of Muslims in such disputes. (Reference: Tafsīr al-Qurṭubī, vol. 9, p. 6136).

The Qur’ān here sets forth a general and universal principle, applicable at all times and in all circumstances: “Whenever two groups of believers enter into conflict and engage in fighting, then reconcile between them” (وَإِن طَائِفَتَانِ مِنَ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ اقْتَتَلُوا فَأَصْلِحُوا بَيْنَهُمَا). Although the term “اقتتلوا” derives from the root “قتال,” meaning battle, contextual indicators demonstrate that it encompasses every form of dispute and conflict, even when it does not reach the level of actual warfare. The occasions of revelation mentioned for this verse also support this broader meaning. Indeed, it may be said that even when the groundwork for conflict is being laid—such as verbal disputes and tensions that may eventually lead to violent conflict—then too, according to this verse, it becomes necessary to intervene and work toward reconciliation. This broader implication can be derived through the method of removing specificity (alqā’ al-khuṣūṣiyyah). In any case, it is a definitive obligation for all Muslims to prevent conflicts, disputes, and bloodshed among themselves, and to regard themselves as responsible for this task—rather than, like some heedless individuals, passing by such scenes with indifference as mere spectators. Upon witnessing such conditions, this is the first responsibility of the believers. The second responsibility is then stated: “If one of the two groups commits transgression and oppression against the other, and does not accept reconciliation, then it becomes your duty to fight against the rebellious group until it returns to the command of Allah and submits” (فَإِن بَغَتْ إِحْدَاهُمَا عَلَى الْأُخْرَى فَقَاتِلُوا الَّتِي تَبْغِي حَتَّى تَفِيءَ إِلَى أَمْرِ اللهِ). It is evident that if, in this process, blood is shed from the rebellious group, the responsibility lies upon them, and in juridical terms, such blood is not subject to retaliation or compensation, even though both parties are Muslims, since the conflict is between two Muslim groups. Thus, Islam regards the prevention of ظلم as essential—even if it requires armed confrontation—and places the implementation of justice above the shedding of blood, but only when reconciliation is not possible. The third directive is then stated: “If the transgressing group returns and peace becomes possible, then reconcile between them in accordance with justice” (فَإِن فَاءَتْ فَأَصْلِحُوا بَيْنَهُمَا بِالْعَدْلِ). That is, it is not sufficient merely to break the power of the aggressor; rather, such intervention must serve as a prelude to establishing peace and removing the roots of conflict. Otherwise, once the aggressor regains strength, the dispute will re-emerge. Some exegetes have inferred from the phrase “بالعدل” that if rights have been violated or blood has been shed, these must be addressed and rectified; otherwise, true reconciliation rooted in justice cannot be achieved. The fourth and final directive warns against bias: “Act with justice and fairness, for Allah loves those who are just” (وَأَقْسِطُوا إِنَّ اللهَ يُحِبُّ الْمُقْسِطِينَ). The term “مقسطين” derives from “قسط,” meaning equitable distribution. When used in the form “أقسط,” it denotes establishing justice and giving each individual their rightful due. Following this, the verse reinforces the principle with its underlying rationale: “The believers are but brothers; therefore, reconcile between your two brothers” (إِنَّمَا الْمُؤْمِنُونَ إِخْوَةٌ فَأَصْلِحُوا بَيْنَ أَخَوَيْكُمْ). Just as individuals strive to reconcile disputes between their biological brothers, so too must they exert sincere effort in reconciling disputes between believers. This is an exceptionally powerful and evocative expression, describing all believers as brothers and portraying their disputes as those between siblings—disputes that must quickly give way to reconciliation. Finally, since personal or group inclinations may sometimes override principles in such matters, the verse concludes with a warning: “And fear Allah so that you may receive mercy” (وَاتَّقُوا اللهَ لَعَلَّكُمْ تُرْحَمُونَ). In this way, the Qur’ān clearly delineates a profound and essential social responsibility for Muslims, encompassing all aspects of justice and ethical conduct within the community.

In Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh islāmī), within the book of jihād, there exists a discussion under the title of fighting the ahl al-baghī, by which are meant those oppressors who rise up against a just Imām and the true leader of the Muslims. They are subject to numerous rulings that are discussed under that chapter. However, the discussion presented in the verse under consideration has a different meaning. It relates to disputes and conflicts that arise between two groups of Muslims, where there is neither a rebellion against the infallible Imām nor an uprising against a just Islamic government. Although some jurists and exegetes have attempted to apply this verse to the former issue as well, this inference is not considered valid, as stated by Fāḍil Miqdād in Kanz al-‘Irfān fī Fiqh al-Qur’ān (Kitāb al-Jihād, Bāb Anwā‘ Ākhar min al-Jihād, vol. 1, p. 386). This is because rebellion against the infallible Imām constitutes disbelief, whereas conflict between two believers is considered fisq rather than disbelief. Accordingly, from the above verse—together with other contextual indications and related principles found in the chapters of amr bi’l-ma‘rūf wa nahy ‘an al-munkar—the following rulings can be derived: First: Reconciling between conflicting groups of Muslims is a farḍ kifāyah (collective obligation). Second: In carrying out this duty, one should initially adopt the simplest and least severe means, observing the principle of “al-as’hal fa’l-as’hal” (proceeding from easier to more difficult measures). However, if such measures prove ineffective, then armed confrontation becomes permissible, and even obligatory. Third: The blood shed by rebellious and transgressing groups in this process, and losses incurred during it, are considered null and without liability, since they occur in the execution of a legitimate religious duty. Consequently, no compensation is applicable in such cases. Fourth: During the stages of reconciliation through dialogue, permission from the ḥākim al-shar‘ is not required. However, in more severe stages—especially where bloodshed is involved—such action is not permissible without the authorization of the Islamic authority or the lawful ruler. In exceptional circumstances where such access is not possible, trustworthy and knowledgeable believers may act in consultation among themselves. Fifth: If the transgressing group causes loss of life or property, it is liable according to the rulings of the Sharī‘ah. In cases of intentional killing, the law of qiṣāṣ (retaliation) applies. Likewise, if the oppressed group suffers loss of life or property, the principles of liability and retaliation remain in effect. The view that, after reconciliation, the rebellious group bears no responsibility for such losses on the basis that the verse does not mention it is incorrect. This is because the verse does not intend to address all such details; rather, such matters are governed by the general principles established in the chapters of qiṣāṣ and liability for damage (itlāf). Sixth: Since the objective of this confrontation is to compel the transgressing group to accept truth, the matters of prisoners of war and spoils (ghanā’im) do not arise, as both parties are Muslim. However, temporary detention for the purpose of ending the conflict is permissible, with the condition that all prisoners be released immediately after reconciliation. Seventh: At times, it may occur that both parties in a conflict are themselves transgressors, each having inflicted harm upon the other—through killing or destruction of property—beyond what is necessary for self-defense. Whether both act equally or one exceeds the other, both are considered unjust. Although the Qur’ān does not state a specific ruling for such a situation, it may be inferred through the method of removing specificity (alqā’ al-khuṣūṣiyyah) from the verse under consideration. The duty of the Muslims in such a case is to reconcile between both parties; if they refuse, then to confront both until they return to the command of Allah, applying to both the rulings that pertain to rebellious and transgressing groups. In conclusion, it must once again be emphasized that the legal status of such disputing groups differs entirely from that of those who rise against the infallible Imām or a just Islamic government. The latter are subject to more severe rulings, which are discussed in detail in the Kitāb al-Jihād of Islamic jurisprudence.

The statement “إِنَّمَا الْمُؤْمِنُونَ إِخْوَةٌ,” which appears in the preceding verse, constitutes a fundamental and foundational Islamic principle. It is a principle that is exceedingly strong, profound, impactful, and meaningful. Followers of other systems, when expressing closeness and attachment among themselves, often refer to one another as “companions.” However, Islam expresses this relationship at a deeper and more intimate level, placing it upon the basis of equality and mutuality, by describing it as the relationship of two “brothers.” Based on this important Islamic principle, Muslims—regardless of their race, tribe, language, or age—share a deep sense of brotherhood with one another. Whether one lives in the East and another in the West, this bond remains. During the rites of Ḥajj, when Muslims from all parts of the world gather at this center of tawḥīd, this bond, connection, and closeness is fully محسوس, and it presents a vivid manifestation of this important Islamic principle. In other words, Islam regards all Muslims as a single family, addressing them as brothers and sisters—not merely as words or slogans, but practically and in terms of mutual responsibilities. Islamic traditions have also emphasized this matter extensively, particularly in highlighting its practical dimensions. Below are a few significant aḥādīth: 1. In a ḥadīth reported from the Noble Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم: “المسلم أخو المسلم، لا يظلمه، ولا يخذله، ولا يسلمه.” “A Muslim is the brother of a Muslim; he neither ظلمs him, nor abandons him, nor leaves him alone in the face of adversity.” (Reference: Maḥajjat al-Bayḍā’, vol. 3, p. 332, Kitāb Ādāb al-Ṣuḥbah wa al-Mu‘āsharah, Bāb 2). 2. In another ḥadīth: “مثل الأخوين مثل اليدين يغسل إحداهما الآخر.” “The example of two brothers in faith is like two hands: each cleanses the other.” (Reference: same source, p. 319). 3. Imām Ṣādiq عليه السلام states: “المؤمن أخو المؤمن، كالجسد الواحد، إذا اشتكى شيئًا منه وجد ألم ذلك في سائر جسده، وأرواحهما من روح واحدة.” “A believer is the brother of a believer; they are like the parts of a single body—if one part suffers, the other parts feel that pain, and their souls are derived from a single روح.” (Reference: Uṣūl Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 133, Bāb Ukhūwah al-Mu’minīn Ba‘ḍuhum li-Ba‘ḍ, ḥadīth 3–4). 4. In another narration from the same Imām: “المؤمن أخو المؤمن عينه ودليله، لا يخونه، ولا يظلمه، ولا يغشه، ولا يعده عدة فيخلفه.” “A believer is the brother of a believer; he is like his eye and his guide. He does not betray him, does not oppress him, does not deceive him, and does not break a promise made to him.” (Reference: Uṣūl Kāfī, vol. 2, p. 133). In well-known Islamic sources of ḥadīth, numerous traditions discuss the rights of a believer over another believer—such as visiting one another, shaking hands, embracing, remembering each other, bringing joy to one another’s hearts, fulfilling one another’s needs, relieving distress, feeding, clothing, and honoring one another. These topics are extensively discussed in Uṣūl Kāfī under various chapters. 5. Finally, we mention a comprehensive narration from the Noble Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم regarding thirty rights of a Muslim over another Muslim: “للمسلم على أخيه ثلاثون حقًا، لا براءة له منها إلا بالأداء أو العفو...” “A Muslim has thirty rights over his Muslim brother, from which he cannot absolve himself except by fulfilling them or through the brother’s forgiveness. These include: forgiving his faults, showing mercy in times of hardship, concealing his secrets, rectifying his mistakes, accepting his excuses, defending him against backbiters, maintaining sincere counsel for him, preserving friendship, honoring his commitments, visiting him in illness, attending his funeral, accepting his invitations, accepting his gifts, reciprocating kindness, showing gratitude, assisting him, safeguarding his honor, fulfilling his needs, interceding on his behalf, responding to his sneeze, guiding him when lost, replying to his greeting, speaking kindly to him, affirming his oaths, befriending his friends, not opposing him, supporting him whether he is ظالم or مظلوم—by preventing him from ظلم if he is ظالم, and helping him obtain his right if he is مظلوم—never abandoning him, wishing for him what one wishes for oneself, and disliking for him what one dislikes for oneself.” (Reference: Bihār al-Anwār, vol. 74, p. 236). In summary, one of the essential rights among Muslims is mutual assistance and reconciliation, as indicated both in the preceding verse and in these narrations.

See ayat 12 for tafseer.

In explaining the occasions of revelation (asbāb al-nuzūl) of these verses, the exegetes have mentioned various reports. Among them are the following: The phrase “لا يَسْخَرْ قَوْمٌ مِنْ قَوْمٍ” is said to have been revealed concerning Thābit ibn Qays (the orator of the Prophet), who was hard of hearing. When he would come to the mosque, people would make space for him near the Prophet so that he could listen to his statements. One day he entered the mosque after people had finished their prayer and had taken their seats. As he pushed through the gathering, saying “make room, make room,” he reached a Muslim who said to him: “Sit where you are.” Thus, he sat behind him, but became angered. When it became light, Thābit asked the man: “Who are you?” He gave his name and said: “I am so-and-so.” Thābit then said: “Are you the son of so-and-so woman?” mentioning his mother with a derogatory nickname that had been used during the period of jāhiliyyah. The man was ashamed and lowered his head. At that point, the verse was revealed, forbidding believers from such conduct. Regarding the phrase “وَلا نِساءٌ مِنْ نِساءٍ,” it is reported that it was revealed concerning Umm Salamah, when some of the wives of the Prophet mocked her, either because of a particular garment she wore or because of her short stature. The verse was then revealed prohibiting such behavior. It has also been reported that the phrase “وَلا يَغْتَبْ بَعْضُكُمْ بَعْضًا” was revealed about two individuals from among the Companions of the Messenger of Allah, who had backbitten their companion Salmān. They had sent him to the Prophet to obtain food for them. The Prophet sent Salmān to Usāmah ibn Zayd, who was in charge of the public treasury (bayt al-māl). Usāmah replied that he had nothing at that time. The two individuals then spoke ill of Usāmah, accusing him of miserliness, and also spoke disparagingly about Salmān, saying that if he were sent to the well of Samīḥah (a well full of water), its water would be depleted. They then went themselves to Usāmah to follow up on the matter. The Prophet, upon seeing them, said: “I see signs of eating flesh in your mouths.” They replied: “O Messenger of Allah, we have not eaten any meat today.” He said: “You have eaten the flesh of Salmān and Usāmah.” Thereupon the verse was revealed, forbidding backbiting. (Reference: Tafsīr Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 9, p. 135; a similar report is also transmitted by al-Qurṭubī with slight variation).

Since the Qur’ān, in this sūrah, seeks to construct the Islamic community upon firm ethical foundations, after discussing the responsibilities of Muslims in cases of conflict and dispute among groups, the verses under consideration proceed to explain some of the roots of such conflicts. The aim is that by removing these roots, disagreements may also be eliminated, and consequently fighting, quarrelling, and disputes may cease. Each of the preceding verses presents, in clear and expressive terms, three elements that may serve as sparks igniting the fire of conflict and discord. It first states: “O you who believe! Let not a group of men mock another group” (يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا لَا يَسْخَرْ قَومٌ مِّن قَوْمٍ). “For it may be that those who are mocked are better than them” (عَسَى أَن يَكُونُوا خَيْرًا مِّنْهُمْ). Likewise, “nor should women mock other women, for it may be that they are better than them” (وَلَا نِسَاءٌ مِّن نِّسَاءٍ عَسَى أَن يَكُنَّ خَيْرًا مِّنْهُنَّ). The address here is to the believers—men and women alike. The Qur’ān warns all of them against this reprehensible act, for mockery and ridicule arise from a sense of superiority and arrogance, which throughout history has been a major cause of bloody conflicts. This sense of superiority is often rooted in outward and material considerations—such as wealth, beauty, or belonging to a prominent tribe. At times, it may even arise from the assumption of superiority in knowledge, worship, or other spiritual matters, leading a person to ridicule others. Yet in reality, before Allah, the true معيار of worth is taqwā, which is connected with intention, purity of heart, humility, character, and etiquette. No one can claim certainty that he is superior to another before Allah. Therefore, belittling others and considering oneself superior is among the most reprehensible acts and the ugliest moral defects, the consequences of which may persist throughout a person’s life. The second stage is expressed in the words: “And do not defame one another, nor seek to find faults” (وَلَا تَلْمِزُوا أَنفُسَكُمْ). The term “لمز” refers to finding faults and criticizing others. The Qur’ān’s use of “أَنفُسَكُمْ” emphasizes the unity of the believers, indicating that they are like a single self; thus, when one finds fault with another, it is as though one is finding fault with oneself. In the third stage, it states: “And do not call one another by offensive nicknames” (وَلَا تَنَابَزُوا بِالْأَلْقَابِ). Many people, both in the past and present, persist in addressing others with insulting names, seeking thereby to humiliate them or diminish their dignity, or even to avenge personal grievances. At times, a person may have committed an undesirable act in the past but later repented and became purified, yet others continue to call him by a name that reflects his former state. Islam explicitly prohibits this conduct and forbids any name or title that carries even the slightest negative implication or results in the humiliation of a believer. At the end of the verse, it adds: “How evil it is to be named with فسوق after having ايمان” (بِئْسَ الاِسْمُ الْفُسُوقُ بَعْدَ الْإِيْمَانِ). And then, as a final warning, it states: “And whoever does not repent, such are the ظالمون” (وَمَن لَّمْ يَتُبْ فَأُوْلَئِكَ هُمُ الظَّالِمُونَ). What greater ظلم can there be than to wound the heart of a believer—whose heart is the locus of love for Allah—through hurtful speech, mockery, and fault-finding, thereby destroying his dignity and honor. As noted, each of the two verses presents three ethical directives. The first addresses mockery, fault-finding, and offensive labeling; the second addresses suspicion, spying, and backbiting. Thus, the next verse begins: “O you who believe! Avoid much suspicion, for indeed some suspicion is sin” (يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا اجْتَنِبُوا كَثِيرًا مِّنَ الظَّنِّ إِنَّ بَعْضَ الظَّنِّ إِثْمٌ). Here, “كَثِيرًا مِّنَ الظَّنِّ” refers to negative suspicions, which are more prevalent than positive ones among people. Positive assumptions are not prohibited; rather, they are commendable. The difference in expression—prohibiting many suspicions, yet stating that some are sinful—may be because certain suspicions happen to correspond to reality, while others do not. It is the latter, contrary-to-reality suspicions, that are clearly sinful; and their existence alone suffices to warrant caution against suspicion generally. The prohibition here pertains to acting upon such suspicion. When a negative thought arises regarding a fellow Muslim, one must not give it effect in one’s conduct. Next, the verse states: “And do not spy on one another” (وَ لا تَجَسَّسُوا). Both “تجسّس” and “تحسس” mean to investigate, but the former is typically used for undesirable matters. Unwarranted investigation into others’ private lives leads to the exposure of hidden faults and secrets, something Islam strongly opposes. In other words, Islam seeks to ensure that people feel secure in their private lives. If individuals were allowed to investigate one another indiscriminately, social harmony would collapse and personal dignity would be destroyed. Finally, it states: “And do not backbite one another” (وَ لا يَغْتَبْ بَعْضُكُمْ بَعْضاً). Thus, suspicion leads to spying, spying leads to uncovering faults, and this in turn leads to backbiting. Islam forbids both the causes and the outcome. To vividly illustrate the gravity of this act, the Qur’ān states: “Would one of you like to eat the flesh of his dead brother?” (أَ يُحِبُّ أَحَدُكُمْ أَنْ يَأْكُلَ لَحْمَ أَخِيهِ مَيْتاً). “Surely you would detest it” (فَكَرِهْتُمُوهُ). This metaphor powerfully conveys the ugliness of backbiting: just as one detests consuming the flesh of a dead brother, so should one detest violating the honor of a fellow believer. The description of the brother as “dead” points to the fact that backbiting occurs in his absence, when he is unable to defend himself. Finally, the verse concludes: “And fear Allah; indeed Allah is Oft‑Returning, Merciful” (وَاتَّقُوا اللهَ إِنَّ اللهَ تَوَّابٌ رَّحِيمٌ). Thus, it calls first for the cultivation of taqwā and God-consciousness, and then for repentance from these sins, so that divine mercy and grace may encompass those who return.

The six commands presented in the two preceding verses—namely, the prohibition of mockery (sukhriyyah), fault-finding (lamz), offensive naming (tanābuz bi al-alqāb), سوء ظن (negative suspicion), spying (tajassus), and backbiting (ghībah)—if fully observed within a society, effectively guarantee the protection of every individual’s dignity and honor from all aspects. In such a society, no individual, due to a sense of superiority, can make others a target of ridicule or mockery. Nor can anyone open his tongue in fault-finding, nor damage the dignity and personality of others through offensive epithets. Similarly, he has no right to harbor سوء ظن toward others, nor to pry into the private lives of individuals, nor to expose their concealed faults. In other words, a human being possesses four essential forms of capital, all of which must remain safeguarded within the protective framework of this ethical system: life (jān), property (māl), and honor and dignity (‘izzat wa ābrū). The above verses and Islamic traditions indicate that a person’s honor and dignity are comparable to, and in some respects even more significant than, his life and property. Islam seeks the complete establishment of security and peace within society. People must not attack one another—not only physically—but also through speech, and even more so in thought. Every individual should feel secure, not only from outward harm but also from the inner projections of accusation and سوء ظن directed toward him by others. This represents a level of security attainable only in a truly faithful and morally guided society. In a ḥadīth, the Noble Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم states: “إنّ الله حرم من المسلم دمه وماله وعرضه، وأن يظن به السوء.” “Indeed, Allah has made the blood, property, and honor of a Muslim inviolable, and likewise to harbor سوء ظن about him.” (Reference: al-Maḥajjat al-Bayḍā’, vol. 5, p. 268). Holding سوء ظن not only harms the individual against whom it is directed but also becomes a great affliction for the one who harbors it, as it leads to isolation from others and withdrawal from collective cooperation. It places a person within a bleak and isolating world, filled with loneliness and estrangement. As reported from Amīr al-Mu’minīn ‘Alī عليه السلام: “من لم يحسن ظنه استوحش من كل أحد.” “One who maintains سوء ظن becomes estranged from everyone.” (Reference: Ghurar al-Ḥikam, p. 697). In other words, that which distinguishes human life from that of animals, and grants it vitality, development, and progress, is the spirit of cooperation and collective engagement. This can only exist where there is mutual trust and positive perception. سوء ظن weakens the foundation of trust, breaks the bonds of cooperation, and undermines social cohesion. Not only سوء ظن, but also the practices of spying (tajassus) and backbiting (ghībah), produce similar destructive effects. Those who are pessimistic and suspicious become fearful of everything and estranged from everyone. Their inner state remains constantly burdened with anxiety. They cannot develop friendship, companionship, or mutual support, nor can they find partners for collective activity or assistance in times of need. It should also be noted that the prohibition here concerns suspicion for which there is no valid basis. Therefore, where suspicion is grounded upon reliable evidence—that is, ẓann mu‘tabar—it is excluded from this ruling, such as the presumption established through the testimony of two just witnesses. Thus, these verses articulate a comprehensive ethical system that safeguards both the external and internal dimensions of human dignity, ensuring the preservation of trust, harmony, and social stability within the community.

We have seen that the Qur’ān, in the preceding verse, explicitly prohibits tajassus (spying or prying into the affairs of others). Since no particular condition or restriction has been placed upon it, this indicates that investigating the affairs of others and attempting to expose their secrets is a sin. However, the contextual indicators found both within the verse and outside it clarify that this prohibition pertains to the personal and private lives of individuals, and likewise applies in the social sphere insofar as it has no bearing upon the destiny or collective condition of society. It is, however, clear and evident that where such matters are connected to the fate of others or to the condition of society, the issue takes on a different form. For this reason, the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم appointed certain individuals to gather information, who were referred to as ‘uyūn, so that they might collect intelligence relevant to the Islamic community, both internally and externally. Accordingly, an Islamic government may appoint officials responsible for gathering information or establish an organized institution for this purpose. In situations where there is fear of conspiracies against society, threats to public security, or danger to the Islamic government, it is permissible to engage in investigation—even, if necessary, extending to inquiry within certain private domains. However, this must never serve as a pretext for violating this fundamental Islamic principle. No one should assume the right, under the pretext of investigating conspiracies or maintaining security, to intrude upon the private and personal lives of individuals—such as scrutinizing their conduct, eavesdropping on their telephone conversations, or conducting searches of their homes at will. In summary, the boundary between prohibited tajassus and necessary information-gathering for the protection of social security is extremely subtle and delicate. It is the responsibility of those entrusted with public affairs to carefully monitor this boundary, so that both the sanctity of personal privacy is preserved and the security of society and the Islamic order is not jeopardized.

Human dignity, honor, and personal integrity constitute the greatest capital of human life. Anything that endangers them is akin to putting one’s very life at risk; indeed, at times, the destruction of a person’s dignity may be considered more severe than the taking of his life. It is at this point that the sin involved may be regarded as even more grave than the sin of قتل نفس. One of the fundamental reasons for the prohibition of غیبت (backbiting) is precisely the preservation of this immense capital, so that the sanctity of individuals may not be violated, their honor not be lost, and their social standing not be tarnished. This is a matter to which Islam has attached great significance. Another important aspect is that غیبت gives rise to ill‑will, weakens social bonds, destroys the foundations of trust, and undermines cooperation and collective engagement. Islam assigns great importance to the unity, organization, and cohesion of the Islamic community. Anything that strengthens this unity is closely associated with the spirit of Islam, whereas anything that weakens it is regarded as reprehensible. Backbiting is one of the most significant factors that contributes to such weakening. Beyond this, غیبت sows the seeds of hatred and enmity in hearts and at times becomes the source of violent conflicts, bloodshed, and warfare. In summary, if غیبت is counted among the major sins (kabā’ir) in Islam, it is due to both its individual and social harms. Islamic traditions employ extremely powerful and striking language in this regard. A few examples are as follows: The Noble Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم said: “إنّ الدّرهم يصيبه الرّجل مِنَ الرّبا أعظم عندَ الله في الخطيئة من ستٍّ وثلاثين زنية، يزنيها الرجل! وأربى الربا عرض الرجل المسلم!” “A single dirham acquired through usury is, in the sight of Allah, a greater sin than thirty-six acts of illicit intercourse, and the gravest form of usury is the violation of a Muslim’s honor.” (Reference: al-Maḥajjat al-Bayḍā’, vol. 5, p. 353). This comparison indicates that although زنا is grave, it falls under ḥaqq Allāh, whereas usury—and even more so, the violation of a person’s honor through backbiting—pertains to ḥaqq al-nās. In another ḥadīth, the Prophet delivered a sermon in a loud voice, saying: “يَا معشر مَن آمن بلسانه ولم يُؤمن بقلبه! لا تغتابوا المسلمين، ولا تتّبعوا عوراتهم، فإنّه من تتبّع عورة أخيه تتبّع الله عورته، ومن تتبّع الله عورته يفضحه في جوف بيته!” “O those who have professed faith with their tongues but whose hearts have not believed! Do not backbite Muslims and do not seek out their hidden faults. For whoever seeks out the faults of his brother, Allah will expose his own faults, and whoever Allah exposes will be disgraced even in his own home.” (Reference: al-Maḥajjat al-Bayḍā’, vol. 5, p. 252). In another narration, it is stated that Allah revealed to Mūsā: “من مات تائبًا من الغيبة فهو آخر من يدخل الجنة، ومن مات مصرًّا عليها فهو أول من يدخل النار!” “He who dies in a state of repentance from backbiting will be the last to enter Paradise, and he who dies persisting in it will be the first to enter Hell.” (Reference: same source, p. 252). Another ḥadīth from the Prophet states: “الغيبة أسرع في دين الرجل المسلم من الأكلة في جوفه” “The effect of backbiting upon the religion of a Muslim is swifter than the effect of leprosy upon the body.” (Reference: Uṣūl Kāfī, vol. 2, Bāb al-Ghībah, ḥadīth 1). This analogy shows how backbiting consumes faith just as a disease consumes the body. Finally, Imām Ṣādiq عليه السلام states: “من روى على مؤمن رواية يريد بها شينه وهدم مروته ليسقط من أعين الناس أخرجه الله من ولايته إلى ولاية الشيطان فلا يقبله الشيطان!” “Whoever transmits something about a believer intending to dishonor him and destroy his dignity so that he falls in the eyes of people, Allah transfers him from His own guardianship into the guardianship of Satan, yet even Satan does not accept him.” (Reference: Wasā’il al-Shī‘ah, vol. 8, Bāb 157, ḥadīth 2, p. 608). These emphatic and striking expressions reflect the extraordinary importance that Islam accords to the protection of the honor and social standing of believers. They also reflect the destructive impact of backbiting upon social unity, mutual trust, and interpersonal relations. Moreover, backbiting becomes, at a broader social level, a cause for the spread of enmity, hostility, and hypocrisy, and contributes to the انتشار of فحشاء و منكر. When hidden faults are exposed through backbiting, the gravity of sin diminishes in the eyes of people, and falling into such wrongdoing becomes easier.

“غیبت” (backbiting), as is evident from the term itself, consists in speaking about someone in his absence. However, it specifically refers to mentioning something that exposes one of his faults—whether that fault is physical or moral, whether it relates to his actions or his speech, and even extends to matters associated with him, such as his clothing, home, spouse, or children. Accordingly, if a person mentions another’s outward and manifest qualities, it does not constitute غیبت—unless the intention is condemnation or fault‑finding. In such a case, it becomes prohibited. For example, if one says—by way of disparagement—that a person is blind, short, dark‑skinned, or beardless, this would fall under prohibition. Thus, mentioning hidden faults—regardless of intention—is considered غیبت and is forbidden. As for referring to outward faults, if it is done with the intent of reproach, it is likewise prohibited, whether or not one formally includes it within the technical definition of غیبت. All of this applies when the attributes mentioned are actually present in the individual. However, if such attributes are not present at all, then this falls under the category of tuhmah (false accusation), which is far more severe and grave than غیبت. In a ḥadīth narrated from Imām Ṣādiq عليه السلام, it is stated: “الغِيبة أن تقول في أخيك ما ستره الله عليه، وأما الأمر الظاهر فيه، مثل الحدّة والعجلة، فلا، والبهتان أن تقول ما ليس فيه.” “Backbiting is to say about your brother that which Allah has concealed for him. As for what is apparent in him—such as severity of temperament or hastiness—it does not fall under غیبت. But buhtān (false accusation) is to attribute something to him that is not in him.” (Reference: Uṣūl Kāfī, vol. 3, Bāb al-Ghībah wa al-Buhtān). From this, it becomes clear that the common justifications offered by some people to excuse backbiting are invalid. For instance, a person may say: “This is not backbiting; it is actually his real attribute.” However, if it were not his attribute, it would constitute tuhmah, not غیبت. Similarly, one may say: “This is something I would say in front of him as well.” Yet saying it in his presence does not reduce the sin of غیبت; rather, it may increase the severity of the wrongdoing, since it adds the element of causing direct harm and injury to the individual.

Backbiting, like many other reprehensible traits, gradually assumes the form of a psychological disorder, such that the individual engaged in it begins to derive pleasure from the act itself. He becomes satisfied and even content in defaming others, constantly seeking opportunities to undermine their honor. This represents a highly dangerous stage in moral degradation. At this point, the individual must, before anything else, address the internal motivations underlying backbiting—those forces rooted deep within the soul that incite one toward sin. Such motivations include miserliness, envy, resentment, hostility, and a sense of personal superiority. Through a process of self‑reform, reflection upon the harmful consequences and corrupt outcomes of these traits, and through disciplined self‑restraint, he must purify his inner being of these impurities. Only by doing so can he restrain his tongue from the contamination of backbiting. Thereafter, he should turn toward repentance. Since backbiting involves ḥaqq al‑nās (the rights of others), if the person who was backbitten is accessible and no further harm will result, one should seek his pardon—even if expressed in a general manner. For instance, he may say: “At times, in ignorance or heedlessness, I spoke about you in your absence; please forgive me,” without elaborating further, lest doing so give rise to new discord. If, however, access to that individual is not possible, or he is unknown, or he has passed away, then one should offer supplication for his forgiveness (istighfār) and perform righteous deeds. It is hoped that, through the blessing of such acts, Allah may grant forgiveness and bring about the satisfaction of the aggrieved party.

Regarding ghībah (backbiting), the final point is that, like every other legal rule, the prohibition of ghībah also admits certain exceptions. Among these is the case where consultation (mashūrah) is sought. For example, if a person seeks advice regarding the choice of a spouse or a business partner, then the principle of honesty in counsel—recognized in Islam—requires that if the advisor is aware of a fault, he should disclose it, lest a Muslim fall into harm. In such a case, mentioning the fault with this intention is not considered unlawful ghībah. Similarly, there are other instances where important objectives are involved—such as consultation in significant matters, establishing a حق, or seeking redress against ظلم—where such disclosure may be justified. Furthermore, in the case of a person who openly commits sin and is described, in technical terms, as “متجاهر بالفسق,” he falls outside the subject of ghībah. If his sin is mentioned behind his back, there is no prohibition. However, it must be noted that this ruling applies only to the sin that he commits openly. It is also important to note that not only is engaging in ghībah itself forbidden, but listening to it is likewise forbidden, and even participation in gatherings where ghībah takes place is considered unlawful. Indeed, according to some traditions, it is obligatory for Muslims to respond to ghībah—that is, to defend the individual who is being spoken about and whose dignity and standing are being threatened. How admirable and elevated would be a society in which these ethical principles were implemented with precision and consistency.

In the preceding verses, the address was directed toward the believers, expressed in the form “يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا,” and within several verses those matters were identified which put a believing society at risk, and they were prohibited. In contrast, in the verse under discussion, the entire human community is addressed, and the most fundamental principle that guarantees order and stability is presented. It defines the true معیار of human values in contrast to false and trivial standards, and states: “O mankind! We have created you from a male and a female, and made you into peoples and tribes so that you may know one another” (يَا أَيُّهَا النَّاسُ إِنَّا خَلَقْنَاكُم مِّن ذَكَرٍ وَأُنثَى وَجَعَلْنَاكُمْ شُعُوبًا وَقَبَائِلَ لِتَعَارَفُوا). The creation of humanity from a male and a female refers to the origin of all human lineages in Adam and Ḥawwā’. Since all human beings share a single origin, there remains no justification for pride based on lineage or tribal affiliation. If Allah has established distinctions of tribes and groups, it is for the regulation of social life, for such distinctions are meant for recognition and identification. Without identifiable distinctions among individuals, social order could not be maintained; if all human beings were entirely identical, society would be overtaken by chaos and disorder. Regarding the terms “شعوب” (plural of “شعب”) and “قبائل” (plural of “قبيلة”), commentators have offered various interpretations. One group has held that “شعوب” has a broader scope than “قبائل,” similar to how the term “people” or “nation” is used in contemporary contexts. Others have interpreted “شعوب” as referring to non-Arab groups and “قبائل” to Arab tribes. Yet others have considered “شعوب” as relating to geographical regions, and “قبائل” to lineage and blood relations. However, the first interpretation appears to be the most appropriate. In any case, after negating the greatest source of pride and boasting in the period of jāhiliyyah—namely lineage and tribal identity—the Qur’ān sets forth the true and real معيار of human worth, stating: “Indeed, the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous among you” (إِنَّ أَكْرَمَكُمْ عِندَ اللهِ أَتْقَاكُمْ). Thus, all outward and material distinctions are nullified, and true nobility is grounded in taqwā, piety, and fear of Allah. No distinction other than taqwā has any relevance in drawing nearer to Allah. Since taqwā is a spiritual and inward quality that must first become established within the human heart and soul, and since many may claim it while few truly possess it, the verse concludes: “Indeed, Allah is All‑Knowing, All‑Aware” (إِنَّ اللهَ عَلِيمٌ خَبِيرٌ). He fully knows those who are truly righteous, their degree of taqwā, sincerity of intention, and inner purity. He honors them and grants them recompense in accordance with His knowledge. Likewise, He knows those who falsely claim such qualities and recompenses them accordingly.

There is no doubt that every human being, by nature, desires to be recognized as a person of worth and dignity. For this reason, one strives with one’s entire being to acquire value. However, due to differences among cultures and civilizations, the معیار of value is not uniform; at times, false values take the place of true ones. One group considers its true worth to lie in affiliation with a well‑known and respected tribe. Accordingly, it constantly strives to elevate the status of its tribe, imagining that by associating itself with that tribe it attains greatness. Particularly among the peoples of the age of jāhiliyyah, pride based on lineage and tribal affiliation was one of the most widespread forms of illusory distinction. Indeed, every tribe considered itself superior, and every lineage regarded itself as more noble. Unfortunately, traces of this mentality still remain deeply embedded in the consciousness of many individuals and societies. Another group considers wealth, possessions, palatial residences, servants, and similar material assets as signs of value, and constantly strives to attain them. Yet another group regards high political positions as the معیار of personal worth. In this manner, each group adopts its own path and attaches itself to a particular form of value, treating it as the criterion. However, since all these matters are unstable, external, material, and transient, a divine religion such as Islam cannot endorse them. Therefore, rejecting all such standards, Islam situates the true and real value of the human being in his intrinsic qualities—particularly taqwā, piety, fulfillment of commitments, and purity. Even knowledge and intellectual achievement, though important, are not considered valuable unless they serve faith, taqwā, and moral values. It is remarkable that the Qur’ān appeared in an environment where tribal affiliation was considered the highest form of value, yet it shattered this constructed idol and liberated humanity from the constraints of lineage, tribe, color, race, wealth, and status. It redirected the human being inward, toward self‑realization through the refinement of the soul and the acquisition of exalted qualities. The occasions of revelation reported for this verse further illustrate the depth of this divine teaching. Among them is the account that after the conquest of Makkah, the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم instructed that the adhān be called. Bilāl ascended the roof of the Ka‘bah and called the adhān. At this, some individuals—such as ‘Attāb ibn Asīd—expressed displeasure, and Ḥārith ibn Hishām said in derision that the Prophet could not find anyone other than this black individual. Thereupon, the verse was revealed, clarifying the true معیار of human worth (Reference: Rūḥ al-Bayān, vol. 9, p. 90; Tafsīr al-Qurṭubī, vol. 9, p. 6160). Another report states that when the Prophet instructed people to give their daughters in marriage to certain mawālī (freed slaves or non-Arabs), some objected in astonishment, saying: shall we give our daughters to them? The verse was revealed in response, invalidating such جاهلی thinking. In a well‑known narration, the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم said: “يَا أَيُّهَا النَّاسُ إنَّ الله قد أذهب عنكم عُبِّيَّة الجاهلية وتعاظمها بآبائها، فالناس رجلان: رجل برّ تقي كريم على الله، وفاجر شقي هين على الله، والناس بنو آدم، وخلق الله آدم من تراب…” “O people! Allah has removed from you the pride of jāhiliyyah and boasting about forefathers. People are of two kinds: the righteous and pious who are honored before Allah, and the wicked who are insignificant before Allah. All of you are the children of Adam, and Adam was created from dust…” He then recited: يَا أَيُّهَا النَّاسُ إِنَّا خَلَقْنَاكُمْ… (Reference: Tafsīr al-Qurṭubī, vol. 9). Similarly, it is reported that during the days of Tashrīq, the Prophet addressed the people, saying: “يا أيها الناس! ألا إن ربكم واحد، وإن أباكم واحد، لا فضل لعربي على عجمي، ولا لعجمي على عربي، ولا أسود على أحمر، ولا لأحمر على أسود إلا بالتقوى…” “O people! Indeed your Lord is one, and your father is one. There is no superiority of an Arab over a non-Arab, nor of a non-Arab over an Arab, nor of a black over a white, nor of a white over a black, except through taqwā…” (Reference: Fī Ẓilāl, vol. 7, p. 538). In another ḥadīth, he said: “إن الله لا ينظر إلى أحسابكم، ولا إلى أنسابكم، ولا إلى أجسامكم، ولا إلى أموالكم، ولكن ينظر إلى قلوبكم…” “Allah does not look at your lineage, your ancestry, your bodies, or your wealth; rather, He looks at your hearts…” He then added that the most beloved before Allah is the most God‑fearing. Yet it is astonishing that despite such comprehensive and profound teachings, some among Muslims still cling to distinctions of race, lineage, and language, even giving them precedence over the unity of faith and Islamic brotherhood. In doing so, they revive the prejudices of jāhiliyyah, despite the hardships such attitudes have brought upon them. Islam has opposed “عصبية الجاهلية” in all its forms in order to unite the Muslims of the world—regardless of race, nation, or tribe—under a single banner. It does not accept such narrow and baseless ideologies. As the Prophet stated: “دعوها فإنها منتنة” “Leave it, for it is a foul and offensive thing.” (Reference: Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, cited in Fī Ẓilāl, vol. 7). How admirable would be a society founded upon the principle: إِنَّ أَكْرَمَكُمْ عِندَ اللَّهِ أَتْقَاكُمْ —in which false distinctions based on race, wealth, geography, and social class are eliminated, and true values—taqwā, moral responsibility, resistance to base desires, truthfulness, integrity, purity, and justice—form the معیار of human worth. Although in contemporary societies these authentic values have often been forgotten and replaced by superficial ones, the transformation of societies ultimately depends upon transforming their value systems and reviving this essential Islamic principle. We conclude with a statement of the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم: “كلكم بنو آدم، وآدم خلق من تراب، ولينتهين قوم يفخرون بآبائهم، أو ليكونن أهون على الله من الجعلان…” “All of you are children of Adam, and Adam was created from dust. Let those who boast of their forefathers cease, or they will become more insignificant before Allah than beetles that dwell in filth.” (Reference: Fī Ẓilāl, vol. 7, p. 538).

As we have seen, the Qur’ān has regarded taqwā as the greatest distinction and has considered it alone to be the معيار for measuring human worth and dignity. In another place, it describes taqwā as the best provision and sustenance, stating: “وَتَزَوَّدُوا فَإِنَّ خَيْرَ الزَّادِ التَّقْوَى” (al‑Baqarah 197). Elsewhere, it refers to the garment of taqwā as the finest covering for the human being: “وَلِبَاسُ التَّقْوَى ذَلِكَ خَيْرٌ” (al‑A‘rāf 26). In numerous verses, taqwā is introduced as one of the foundational principles in the initial دعوت of the Prophets. In another passage, the significance of this concept is elevated to such an extent that Allah Himself is described as the very source of taqwā: “هُوَ أَهْلُ التَّقْوَى وَأَهْلُ الْمَغْفِرَةِ” (al‑Muddatthir 56). The Qur’ān also presents taqwā as a divine light, which, when established, becomes the cause of knowledge and understanding: “وَاتَّقُوا اللهَ وَيُعَلِّمُكُمُ اللهُ” (al‑Baqarah 282). Likewise, it couples righteousness (birr) with taqwā: “وَتَعَاوَنُوا عَلَى الْبِرِّ وَالتَّقْوَى” (al‑Mā’idah 8). And it pairs justice with taqwā: “إِعْدِلُوا هُوَ أَقْرَبُ لِلتَّقْوَى” (al‑Mā’idah 8). The question then arises: what is the reality of this great spiritual capital and this highest human distinction—taqwā? The Qur’ān provides indications that unveil its true nature. In several verses, it associates taqwā with the heart. For example, it says: “أُوْلَئِكَ الَّذِينَ إِمْتَحَنَ اللهُ قُلُوبَهُمْ لِلتَّقْوَى” (al‑Ḥujurāt 3), referring to those who lower their voices in the presence of the Messenger and observe proper etiquette—individuals whose hearts have been tested and prepared for taqwā. The Qur’ān also presents taqwā as the counterpart of fujūr, as in Sūrat al‑Shams: “فَأَلْهَمَهَا فُجُورَهَا وَتَقْوَاهَا” (al‑Shams 8). Furthermore, it regards every action arising from sincerity and purity of intention as rooted in taqwā. Thus, regarding the mosque of Qubā’, it states: “لَّمَسْجِدٌ أُسِّسَ عَلَى التَّقْوَى مِنْ أَوَّلِ يَوْمٍ أَحَقُّ أَن تَقُومَ فِيهِ” (al‑Tawbah 108). From the مجموع of these verses, it becomes clear that taqwā is essentially a sense of moral responsibility that, after the establishment of faith, governs the human being, restraining him from sin and deviation and directing him toward goodness, purity, and justice. It purifies actions and refines intentions. If we return to the linguistic root of the term, we arrive at the same conclusion: taqwā, derived from wiqāyah, signifies the act of safeguarding and protecting. In this context, it refers to protecting the soul from all kinds of impurity and directing one’s energies toward what pleases Allah. Some scholars have described taqwā as consisting of three levels: 1. Protecting the self from eternal punishment through correct beliefs. 2. Avoiding all forms of sin, whether through neglect of obligations or commission of disobedience. 3. Guarding oneself from anything that distracts the heart and turns it away from the truth—this being the taqwā of the most select individuals. Amīr al‑Mu’minīn ‘Alī عليه السلام has expressed profound descriptions of taqwā in Nahj al‑Balāghah. In one passage, he contrasts taqwā with sin in a vivid analogy: “أَلَا وَإِنَّ الخَطايا خيل شمس… وألا وإن التقوى مطايا ذلل…” “Sins are like unruly mounts whose reins are loosened, carrying their riders into the Fire; whereas taqwā is like a well‑trained mount, whose reins are in the hands of its rider, leading him safely into Paradise.” According to this analogy, taqwā is the state of self‑protection, self‑control, and mastery over desires, whereas the absence of taqwā results in submission to uncontrolled passions. In another place, he states: “إنّ التقوى دار حصن عزيز، والفجور دار حصن ذليل…” “Taqwā is a strong and fortified refuge, whereas sin is a feeble and defenseless shelter that cannot protect its inhabitants.” And further, he says: “فاعتصموا بتقوى الله فإن لها حبلا وثيقا…” “Hold firmly to taqwā, for it is a firm bond and a secure refuge.” These descriptions clearly elucidate the essence and spirit of taqwā. It should also be noted that taqwā is the fruit of the tree of faith. Therefore, to attain this great treasure, the foundations of faith must be strengthened. Obedience to divine commands, avoidance of sin, and adherence to moral discipline lead to the establishment of taqwā, which in turn produces the light of certainty (yaqīn) within the soul. Indeed, in Islamic traditions, taqwā is described as being one degree above faith and one degree below certainty. Imām ‘Alī ibn Mūsā al‑Riḍā عليه السلام states: “الإيمان فوق الإسلام بدرجة، والتقوى فوق الإيمان بدرجة، واليقين فوق التقوى بدرجة…” “Faith is above Islam by one degree, taqwā is above faith by one degree, and certainty is above taqwā by one degree…” We conclude with these well‑known verses that illustrate the essence of taqwā: “Leave all sins, small and great—this is taqwā. Be like one who walks upon a field of thorns, carefully guarding his steps. Do not consider any sin insignificant—for mountains are formed from pebbles.”

See ayat 15 for tafseer.

Many exegetes have reported a specific occasion of revelation (sha’n al‑nuzūl) for this verse, the summary of which is as follows: A group from the tribe of Banī Asad came to Madīnah during a year of famine and drought. In order to obtain assistance from the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم, they verbally professed the testimony of faith and said to him that other Arab tribes had come to fight against him while mounted on their steeds, but they themselves had not come to wage war; rather, they had come with their families. In reality, by speaking in this manner, they intended to present their Islam as a favor and obligation upon the Prophet. At that point, the above verses were revealed, clarifying that their Islam was outward and that faith had not penetrated the depths of their hearts. Moreover, even if they had truly embraced faith, it was not for them to claim any favor over the Prophet; rather, it is Allah who has bestowed favor upon them by guiding them. (Reference: Tafsīr al‑Mīzān, Rūḥ al‑Ma‘ānī, and Fī Ẓilāl al‑Qur’ān, under the relevant verses). However, as with other cases, the existence of a specific occasion of revelation does not in any way restrict the general applicability of the verse’s meaning.

In the preceding verses, discussion centered on the معیار of human worth, namely taqwā. Since taqwā is the fruit of the tree of faith—particularly that faith which penetrates the depths of the heart and soul—the verses under discussion proceed to present the reality of faith itself. It is stated: “قَالَتِ الْأَعْرَابُ آمَنَّا قُل لَّمْ تُؤْمِنُوا وَلَكِن قُولُوا أَسْلَمْنَا وَلَمَّا يَدْخُلِ الْإِيْمَانُ فِي قُلُوبِكُمْ” “The Bedouin Arabs said: ‘We have believed.’ Say: You have not believed; rather say: we have submitted (أسلمنا), for faith has not yet entered your hearts.” According to this verse, the distinction between Islam and īmān is that Islam has an external, juridical form: whoever professes the testimony verbally becomes included among the Muslims, and the legal rulings of Islam apply to him. In contrast, īmān is an inward and real matter, whose locus is the heart rather than the tongue or outward expression. Islam may arise from diverse motivations—even material considerations or personal interests—but īmān necessarily draws nourishment from spiritual motivations and knowledge. It is from this that the life‑giving fruit of taqwā emerges. This meaning is also conveyed in a clear expression reported from the Noble Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم: “الإسلام علانيّة، والإيمان في القلب” “Islam is outward and manifest, whereas faith resides in the heart.” (Reference: Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 9, p. 138). In another ḥadīth from Imām Ṣādiq عليه السلام: “الإسلام يحقن به الدم وتؤدى به الأمانة وتستحل به الفروج، والثواب على الإيمان.” “Through Islam, blood is protected, trusts are fulfilled, and marital relations become lawful, but reward is based on faith.” (Reference: al-Kāfī, vol. 2, Bāb: anna al‑Islām yaḥqun bihi al‑dam). Similarly, it is stated: “الإيمان إقرار وعمل، والإسلام إقرار بلا عمل” “Faith consists of affirmation and action, whereas Islam is affirmation without action.” (Reference: al-Kāfī, vol. 2). In another expression, Imām Ṣādiq عليه السلام explains: “إن الإيمان يشارك الإسلام ولا يشاركه الإسلام… إن الإيمان ما وقر في القلوب، والإسلام ما عليه المناكح والمواريث وحقن الدماء.” “Faith shares with Islam, but Islam does not share with faith; that is, every believer is a Muslim, but not every Muslim is a believer. Faith is that which is established in the heart, while Islam pertains to matters such as marriage, inheritance, and protection of blood.” (Reference: Uṣūl al-Kāfī, vol. 2). This distinction holds when both terms are used in contrast with one another; otherwise, when used independently, each may refer to the broader reality. The verse then continues: “وَإِن تُطِيعُوا اللهَ وَرَسُولَهُ لَا يَلِتْكُم مِّنْ أَعْمَالِكُمْ شَيْئًا” “If you obey Allah and His Messenger, He will not diminish anything from your deeds,” “إِنَّ اللهَ غَفُورٌ رَّحِيمٌ” “Indeed, Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.” The expression “لَا يَلِتْكُم” signifies that none of the reward of your deeds will be diminished. This reflects the Qur’ānic principle that acceptance of deeds is conditioned upon faith. If there is genuine inward faith—manifested in obedience—then deeds are valued and rewarded, and divine forgiveness becomes attainable. Since the attainment of this inner state of faith is not a simple matter, the next verse presents its distinguishing signs, through which a true believer may be distinguished from one who merely outwardly professes Islam. It states: “إِنَّمَا الْمُؤْمِنُونَ الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا بِاللهِ وَرَسُولِهِ ثُمَّ لَمْ يَرْتَابُوا وَجَاهَدُوا بِأَمْوَالِهِمْ وَأَنفُسِهِمْ فِي سَبِيلِ اللهِ” “Indeed, the true believers are those who believe in Allah and His Messenger, then do not doubt, and strive with their wealth and their lives in the path of Allah.” Thus, the first sign of true faith is freedom from doubt; the second is striving through wealth; and the third—and highest—is striving through one’s life. It is inconceivable that faith be firmly established in the heart while a person hesitates to sacrifice wealth and life for the sake of what is beloved. Therefore, the verse concludes: “أُوْلَئِكَ هُمُ الصَّادِقُونَ” “Such are the truthful ones.” This معیار, established by the Qur’ān, is not limited to the specific case of Banī Asad; rather, it serves as a universal standard for distinguishing genuine believers from false claimants in every time and place. Thus, throughout history, there have always been those who loudly profess Islam and associate themselves with the Prophet, yet whose actions bear little evidence of faith. In contrast, there are others who make no claims, consider themselves insignificant, and yet stand foremost in sacrifice and devotion. If this Qur’ānic معیار were truly applied, it is uncertain how many among the multitudes of those claiming Islam would be recognized as true believers and how many would be merely outward Muslims.

See ayat 18 for tafseer.

See ayat 18 for tafseer.

A group of exegetes has stated that after the revelation of the preceding verses, a group of Bedouin Arabs came to the Prophet and began swearing that they were truthful in their claim of faith, and that their outward state and their inward reality were the same. At this point, the first of the verses under discussion was revealed, informing them that there was no need for such oaths, for Allah knows both their outward condition and their inner reality.

In the preceding verses, the marks of true believers had been described. As indicated in the occasion of revelation, the group that merely claimed Islam insisted that the reality of faith had become firmly established in their hearts. The Qur’ān addresses them—as well as all others of a similar kind—declaring that there is no need for insistence or oath-taking in matters of faith and disbelief. Your relation in this matter is with a God who is fully aware of everything. Thus, in a tone of reproach, it states: “قُلْ أَتُعَلِّمُونَ اللَّهَ بِدِينِكُمْ وَاللَّهُ يَعْلَمُ مَا فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَمَا فِي الْأَرْضِ” “Say: Do you seek to inform Allah of your religion, while Allah knows whatever is in the heavens and the earth?” And for further emphasis, it adds: “وَاللَّهُ بِكُلِّ شَيْءٍ عَلِيمٌ” “And Allah is All‑Knowing of all things.” His sacred essence is identical with knowledge, and His knowledge is identical with His essence; therefore, His knowledge is eternal and everlasting. His pure being is ever‑present, nearer to you than your jugular vein. He stands between a person and his heart. Under such circumstances, there is no need for your assertions and claims. He knows the truthful and the false claimants alike; He is fully aware of the innermost depths of their hearts, even of the درجات of their faith—matters which may sometimes be hidden even from themselves. Why then do you insist upon informing Him of your supposed faith? The verse then returns to the speech of the Bedouin Arabs, who were presenting their acceptance of Islam as a favor upon the Prophet, saying: we have come to you through submission, whereas other tribes came to fight you. In response, the Qur’ān states: “يَمُنُّونَ عَلَيْكَ أَنْ أَسْلَمُوا” “They present it as a favor upon you that they have submitted (accepted Islam).” It then instructs: “قُلْ لَا تَمُنُّوا عَلَيَّ إِسْلَامَكُمْ” “Say: Do not count your Islam as a favor upon me.” Rather: “بَلِ اللَّهُ يَمُنُّ عَلَيْكُمْ أَنْ هَدَاكُمْ لِلْإِيمَانِ إِنْ كُنْتُمْ صَادِقِينَ” “Indeed, it is Allah who has conferred favor upon you by guiding you to faith, if you are truthful.” The term “منّة” (favor), as previously explained, derives from the root “من,” originally referring to weight and value; it was later applied to any weighty and significant blessing. There are two types of “منّة”: if it refers to an actual granting of a great blessing, it is praiseworthy—such as the favors of Allah; but if it appears as a verbal claim of favor—such as when human beings remind others of their benefactions—it becomes blameworthy and undesirable. It is noteworthy that in the first clause the verse refers to “Islam,” indicating again that their claim pertains only to outward submission, not to true faith. However, in the latter part, where it states “if you are truthful,” it indicates that if indeed their claim of faith is genuine, then even that is a favor from Allah, not something to be claimed against the Prophet. This leads to a profound principle: individuals of limited outlook often imagine that by accepting faith and performing acts of obedience and worship, they have rendered a service to God, His Messenger, or the Imāms, and thus consider themselves deserving of reward as though it were owed to them. In reality, if the light of faith illuminates the heart and a person attains the blessing of entering the ranks of the believers, this is the greatest of divine favors upon him. Faith first grants a new perception of the reality of existence. It removes the veils of selfishness and pride, expands the horizons of human vision, and reveals the عظمت and splendor of creation. It then illuminates and nurtures human emotions, revives noble values, strengthens capacities for knowledge, courage, leadership, sacrifice, forgiveness, and sincerity, and transforms a weak human being into a powerful and fruitful one. It elevates him through the stages of perfection, granting him the highest forms of dignity, aligning him with the order of the cosmos and making the universe itself responsive to him. Thus, the question arises: is this a favor of God upon man, or a favor of man upon the Messenger? Similarly, acts of worship and obedience are each steps toward perfection: they purify the heart, control desires, strengthen the soul, and grant unity and strength to the Islamic community. Each of these is a great training ground and a profound lesson in reform. At this stage, it becomes incumbent upon a person to give thanks for the blessing of faith at all times, and after every prayer and act of worship to bow in gratitude for these divine favors. If a person truly understands faith and obedience in this manner, he will never consider himself a claimant; rather, he will always feel indebted to God and His Messenger, overwhelmed by divine favors. He will perform acts of worship with love and eagerness, hastening toward obedience not reluctantly but with devotion. And if God grants him reward, he will regard even that as another manifestation of divine grace—for in reality, the benefit of good deeds returns to the human being himself. Thus, divine guidance is a favor, the call of the Prophet is a favor, the ability to obey is a further favor, and the granting of reward is yet another favor beyond all favors. Finally, the last verse of Sūrat al‑Ḥujurāt reinforces this same truth, stating: “إِنَّ اللَّهَ يَعْلَمُ غَيْبَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَاللَّهُ بَصِيرٌ بِمَا تَعْمَلُونَ” “Indeed, Allah knows the unseen of the heavens and the earth, and Allah is All‑Seeing of what you do.” Therefore, there is no need to insist upon claims of faith or to swear oaths. He knows the innermost depths of your hearts, the secrets concealed within them, and all that passes through them. He knows the hidden realities of the earth and the unseen of the heavens—so how could He be unaware of what lies within your hearts? O Lord! You have bestowed favor upon us and illuminated our hearts with the light of faith. By the greatness of this blessing of guidance, keep us steadfast upon this path and guide us toward perfection and growth. O God! You are fully aware of the depths of our hearts and the reality of our intentions. Conceal our faults from Your servants and, by Your grace, bring about our reform. O Lord! Grant us the ability and strength to revive within ourselves the noble moral values set forth in this exalted sūrah, and to preserve and honor them. Āmīn, yā Rabb al‑‘ālamīn.